MASS: A Blockchain Consensus Engine.
The adoption of blockchain technology is a work in progress. There are details that have to be worked out; a fully secure and decentralized system needs to be built; scalability and performance must be optimized. Yet there is one major tension that must be resolved first: there needs to be a strong consensus mechanism.
Consensus is the basic infrastructure for all blockchain-based actions, contracts and applications — it’s blockchain’s Layer 0. In fact, the lack of a strong consensus layer has been a large contributing factor that’s inhibited Blockchain’s mainstream adoption. Proof-of-Work, currently the incumbent consensus mechanism, struggles with issues inherent to its design — energy waste, inequity, and increasingly centralized mining. If history is any guide, long-lasting systems need a stable base — MASS provides this strong basic infrastructure layer.
What is MASS?
MASS is a basic infrastructure layer that is capable of providing consensus services across any number of public chains. In order to create a sustainable and strong Layer 0, the MASS consensus engine uses MASS Proof-of-Capacity consensus protocol. Proof-of-Capacity establishes a consensus layer that is permissionless, fair, energy efficient, secure, and universal — ensuring the fundamental security of the public chain. Proof-of-Capacity is designed to preclude the use of ASICs: participants just need to have access to storage space (such as hard drive space on a basic laptop.)
MASS Net is the first public chain to make use of the MASS consensus engine (MASS is the store-of-value in circulation and the value anchor of the MASS consensus engine). The network is permissionless — with a level of security similar to the Nakamoto consensus protocol — nodes use storage capacity to run the consensus protocol. The network tends more towards decentralization compared to bitcoin, because competition for blocks does not require the use of prohibitively expensive computing resources. The MASS consensus engine is designed to enable participants to get a fair share of the value created — anyone can mine with commonplace hardware because only a small amount of computing resources is required. Furthermore, the network can support multiple blockchain instances in parallel.
MASS Net enables users to join a secure network and maintain it without the need for permission, and provides all participants a fair share of the value created.
What is Proof of Capacity（PoC）
Proof-of-Capacity (PoC) is a consensus mechanism based on providing a proof of storage space. In a PoC consensus algorithm, when a node submits a block to the network it must also provide a valid proof of capacity. It is very difficult for a node to generate a valid capacity proof without having the corresponding storage size, and the proof can be verified by any node in the network. If both the block data and the proof are valid, the block will be accepted by the rest of the network. The basic principle behind how a proof is provided is as follows: during the initialisation phase, a series of data is generated according to the protocol and is saved in the storage device capacity. When the a new block is to be generated, a part of this stored data is revealed retrieved based on the value of a random number. This data part is then used to generate a proof and the node is able to compete for the next block.
The MASS PoC protocol and bitcoin’s Nakamoto consensus protocol can both be described with a unified mathematical model. F(∙) is a one-way permutation function for space |N|_x to space |N|_y. The verifier takes a value y from space |N|_y, and within a certain period of time, the prover must submit give a corresponding value x for in space |N|_x within a certain period of time so that where F(x)=y. The Nakamoto consensus protocol uses an exhaustive brute-force search method to calculate y values with F(∙) by iterating all possible x value in order to find the right x when a collision of y happens, making multiple requests on the function to find the corresponding y value and thereby confirm the value of x. On the other hand, the MASS PoC protocol uses a look-up table method, first performing an offline analysis and recording all the x values that correspond with y, and then when solving for y simply looking up the corresponding x value when finding a y. Despite the difference in methods, in terms of security the MASS and Nakamoto consensus protocols are very similar within regards to algorithm security.
Network
The MASS blockchain system is structured as a peer-to-peer network architecture on top of the internet. The term peer-to-peer means that the computers that participate in the network are peers to each other, that they are all equal, that there are no “special” nodes, and that all nodes share the burden of providing network services. The network nodes interconnect in a mesh network with a “flat” topology. There is no server, no centralised service, and no hierarchy within the network. Nodes in a P2P network both provide and consume services at the same time with reciprocity acting as the incentive for participation. P2P networks are inherently resilient, decentralised, and open.
Security Analysis
Due to the inherently secure nature of the Proof-of-Capacity method and the blockchain consensus, MASS possesses the extremely high level of security that users would expect.
Proof-of-Capacity is secure in the following ways:
● Proofs cannot be forged:
MASS's PoC algorithm makes use of time-memory trade-offs. If the prover provides the capacity proof S, it shows that the prover filled the capacity S according to the present rules, which would be very difficult to calculate quickly.
● 51% fault tolerance:
When competing for the next block, each node looks for a proof that matches the current block in its own initialised storage space. The probability of a node generating the new block is in proportion to the ratio between the initialised capacity of the entire network and the initialised capacity of the current node. If a malicious node intends to take control of block generation, it needs at least 51% of the capacity of the entire network. However, to have more than 51% capacity, the physical hardware investment would be colossal. Therefore, malicious nodes do not have sufficient incentive to break the MASS consensus.
● The unpredictability of the random target value:
In the MASS PoC algorithm, each block provides a random value as the target for the initialised capacity of all nodes. This random value is produced by a verifiable random function, and no node can control this. Therefore, at the same block height, all nodes have the same prior information when competing for the next block. The blockchain consensus protocol is secure in the following ways:
● Resistant to forking:
The fork detection punishment scheme protects against Nothing-at-Stake attacks splitting the chain. Since MASS uses a Proof-ofCapacity algorithm, without taking necessary protective measures, it would be at risk from Nothing-at-Stake attacks. That is, the proof S can be used as the proof on the main chain and also on a fork at the same time at no additional cost. In order to deal with this risk, the MASS system uses a fork detection punishment scheme. If the main chain block and a forked chain block are found to have the same proof, all nodes will automatically blacklist the public key used in initialisation for that storage capacity and reject subsequent proofs provided from it.
● Resistant to selfish mining:
In a proof-of-work consensus mechanism, a malicious node can obtain a time advantage in competing for the next block by hiding blocks already mined. However, in the MASS blockchain consensus protocol, initialised nodes can find proofs exceptionally quickly, so there is no room for strategies of this type.
● Resistant to double-spend transactions:
The MASS system uses a UTXO (Unspent Transaction Output) transaction model, which is secured by asymmetrically encrypted mathematical algorithms. Block rollback is guaranteed by the PoC algorithm’s 51% Byzantine fault tolerance.
Advantages
The MASS blockchain system has the following features:
● Secure:
Using the principle of time-memory trade-offs, the PoC protocol ensures the unforgeability of proofs, and together with the use of a verifiable random function ensures that the MASS system has 51% Byzantine Fault Tolerance. Furthermore, a fork detection punishment scheme protects the main chain from Nothing-at-Stake attacks that could split the main chain.
● Fair:
The MASS PoC consensus protocol guarantees that a node's block generation probability is dependent only on the proof of effective capacity provided by the node. In addition, the proof of effective capacity is storage medium independent, so that all nodes participating in the MASS network have similar marginal costs.
● Energy efficient:
In the MASS PoC protocol, computing resources are only required when initialising storage capacity, and when entering the block consensus phase storage capacity data is only accessed at O(1) complexity a time. Therefore, using the MASS PoC protocol for block consensus does not require continuous power input consumption. When the MASS system performs block consensus, the computing resources used are negligible; small enough not to affect the normal usage of a computer. When storage capacity is not participating in the MASS network, it can be reformatted and used for other uses purposes.
● Universal:
During the consensus process, the node only needs to perform an access query on the initialised capacity and does not perform any data operations on it. Therefore, the same storage space can provide capacity proofs for multiple blockchain consensus instances, and nodes using the MASS PoC protocol can simultaneously support multiple blockchain instances in parallel.
Conclusion
The MASS consensus engine aims to become the basic infrastructure to all blockchain consensus layers. Based on a Proof-of-Capacity consensus protocol, the MASS consensus engine creates a consensus layer that is permissionless, fair, energy efficient, secure, and universal, ensuring the fundamental security of the public chain.
Social Media:
Whitepaper：https://download.massnet.org/research/MASS-A%20Blockchain%20Consensus%20Engine.pdf
MASS Docs：https://docs.massnet.org/en/
Telegram：https://t.me/massnetorg
Twitter：https://twitter.com/massnetorg
Discord：https://discord.gg/Ffk4VFS
ANN Thread：https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=5230593
MASS Website: https://massnet.org/en/
Proof-of-Capacity (PoC) is a consensus mechanism based on providing a proof of storage space. In a PoC consensus algorithm, when a node submits a block to the network it must also provide a valid proof of capacity. It is very difficult for a node to generate a valid capacity proof without having the corresponding storage size, and the proof can be verified by any node in the network. If both the block data and the proof are valid, the block will be accepted by the rest of the network. The basic principle behind how a proof is provided is as follows: during the initialisation phase, a series of data is generated according to the protocol and is saved in the storage device capacity. When the a new block is to be generated, a part of this stored data is revealed retrieved based on the value of a random number. This data part is then used to generate a proof and the node is able to compete for the next block.
The MASS PoC protocol and bitcoin’s Nakamoto consensus protocol can both be described with a unified mathematical model. F(∙) is a one-way permutation function for space |N|_x to space |N|_y. The verifier takes a value y from space |N|_y, and within a certain period of time, the prover must submit give a corresponding value x for in space |N|_x within a certain period of time so that where F(x)=y. The Nakamoto consensus protocol uses an exhaustive brute-force search method to calculate y values with F(∙) by iterating all possible x value in order to find the right x when a collision of y happens, making multiple requests on the function to find the corresponding y value and thereby confirm the value of x. On the other hand, the MASS PoC protocol uses a look-up table method, first performing an offline analysis and recording all the x values that correspond with y, and then when solving for y simply looking up the corresponding x value when finding a y. Despite the difference in methods, in terms of security the MASS and Nakamoto consensus protocols are very similar within regards to algorithm security.
Network
The MASS blockchain system is structured as a peer-to-peer network architecture on top of the internet. The term peer-to-peer means that the computers that participate in the network are peers to each other, that they are all equal, that there are no “special” nodes, and that all nodes share the burden of providing network services. The network nodes interconnect in a mesh network with a “flat” topology. There is no server, no centralised service, and no hierarchy within the network. Nodes in a P2P network both provide and consume services at the same time with reciprocity acting as the incentive for participation. P2P networks are inherently resilient, decentralised, and open.
Security Analysis
Due to the inherently secure nature of the Proof-of-Capacity method and the blockchain consensus, MASS possesses the extremely high level of security that users would expect.
Proof-of-Capacity is secure in the following ways:
● Proofs cannot be forged:
MASS's PoC algorithm makes use of time-memory trade-offs. If the prover provides the capacity proof S, it shows that the prover filled the capacity S according to the present rules, which would be very difficult to calculate quickly.
● 51% fault tolerance:
When competing for the next block, each node looks for a proof that matches the current block in its own initialised storage space. The probability of a node generating the new block is in proportion to the ratio between the initialised capacity of the entire network and the initialised capacity of the current node. If a malicious node intends to take control of block generation, it needs at least 51% of the capacity of the entire network. However, to have more than 51% capacity, the physical hardware investment would be colossal. Therefore, malicious nodes do not have sufficient incentive to break the MASS consensus.
● The unpredictability of the random target value:
In the MASS PoC algorithm, each block provides a random value as the target for the initialised capacity of all nodes. This random value is produced by a verifiable random function, and no node can control this. Therefore, at the same block height, all nodes have the same prior information when competing for the next block. The blockchain consensus protocol is secure in the following ways:
● Resistant to forking:
The fork detection punishment scheme protects against Nothing-at-Stake attacks splitting the chain. Since MASS uses a Proof-ofCapacity algorithm, without taking necessary protective measures, it would be at risk from Nothing-at-Stake attacks. That is, the proof S can be used as the proof on the main chain and also on a fork at the same time at no additional cost. In order to deal with this risk, the MASS system uses a fork detection punishment scheme. If the main chain block and a forked chain block are found to have the same proof, all nodes will automatically blacklist the public key used in initialisation for that storage capacity and reject subsequent proofs provided from it.
● Resistant to selfish mining:
In a proof-of-work consensus mechanism, a malicious node can obtain a time advantage in competing for the next block by hiding blocks already mined. However, in the MASS blockchain consensus protocol, initialised nodes can find proofs exceptionally quickly, so there is no room for strategies of this type.
● Resistant to double-spend transactions:
The MASS system uses a UTXO (Unspent Transaction Output) transaction model, which is secured by asymmetrically encrypted mathematical algorithms. Block rollback is guaranteed by the PoC algorithm’s 51% Byzantine fault tolerance.
Advantages
The MASS blockchain system has the following features:
● Secure:
Using the principle of time-memory trade-offs, the PoC protocol ensures the unforgeability of proofs, and together with the use of a verifiable random function ensures that the MASS system has 51% Byzantine Fault Tolerance. Furthermore, a fork detection punishment scheme protects the main chain from Nothing-at-Stake attacks that could split the main chain.
● Fair:
The MASS PoC consensus protocol guarantees that a node's block generation probability is dependent only on the proof of effective capacity provided by the node. In addition, the proof of effective capacity is storage medium independent, so that all nodes participating in the MASS network have similar marginal costs.
● Energy efficient:
In the MASS PoC protocol, computing resources are only required when initialising storage capacity, and when entering the block consensus phase storage capacity data is only accessed at O(1) complexity a time. Therefore, using the MASS PoC protocol for block consensus does not require continuous power input consumption. When the MASS system performs block consensus, the computing resources used are negligible; small enough not to affect the normal usage of a computer. When storage capacity is not participating in the MASS network, it can be reformatted and used for other uses purposes.
● Universal:
During the consensus process, the node only needs to perform an access query on the initialised capacity and does not perform any data operations on it. Therefore, the same storage space can provide capacity proofs for multiple blockchain consensus instances, and nodes using the MASS PoC protocol can simultaneously support multiple blockchain instances in parallel.
Conclusion
The MASS consensus engine aims to become the basic infrastructure to all blockchain consensus layers. Based on a Proof-of-Capacity consensus protocol, the MASS consensus engine creates a consensus layer that is permissionless, fair, energy efficient, secure, and universal, ensuring the fundamental security of the public chain.
Social Media:
Whitepaper：https://download.massnet.org/research/MASS-A%20Blockchain%20Consensus%20Engine.pdf
MASS Docs：https://docs.massnet.org/en/
Telegram：https://t.me/massnetorg
Twitter：https://twitter.com/massnetorg
Discord：https://discord.gg/Ffk4VFS
ANN Thread：https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=5230593
MASS Website: https://massnet.org/en/
AUTHOR
USER NAME: JAMAAH45
ETH: 0x7A5df2D8D32b8f8e4FC6BF71D2BDfe69992D1C1B
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